Sedimentary and metamorphic processes priming black shale for magmatic assimilation of sulfur: an example from the Virginia Formation, Minnesota, United States

The copper-nickel(-platinum-group element) sulfide resources of the Duluth Complex, Minnesota, USA, formed by assimilation of sulfur from the Virginia Formation black shale. In the normal black shale of the Virginia Formation, sulfur is mainly hosted in disseminated pyrite, whereas mm-scale pyrrhotite laminae dominate in the sulfur-rich Bedded Pyrrhotite Unit. The Bedded Pyrrhotite Unit was the main supply of sulfur in some of the magmatic sulfide deposits but its origin has not been studied in detail. Using Raman spectroscopy, we show that the carbonaceous material within the regionally metamorphosed normal black shale is graphitized biogenic material. The Bedded Pyrrhotite Unit contains pyrobitumen that represents residues of oil that accumulated to porous horizons, which formed due to dissolution of precursor sedimentary clasts. Replacement of the clasts by quartz and sulfides facilitated the formation of the pyrrhotite laminae of the Bedded Pyrrhotite Unit, which likely occurred during regional metamorphism. The pyrite-bearing normal black shale experienced loss of H ₂O, C _org, and sulfur during devolatilization caused by the Duluth Complex. The contact-metamorphosed Bedded Pyrrhotite Unit shows no systematic depletion of volatiles and is the most C _org and sulfur-rich part of the Virginia Formation. During devolatilization, sulfur was preserved because unlike pyrite, pyrrhotite was stable. Consequently, magmatic assimilation of sulfur from the Bedded Pyrrhotite Unit required partial melting. Retrograde hydration introduced H ₂O, and possibly C _org, and sulfur, to the contact-metamorphosed Bedded Pyrrhotite Unit, which further affected the volatile budget. Our findings highlight why constraining diagenetic and regional metamorphic processes is important to understand magma-sediment interaction processes.