An integrated life-cycle assessment of three different propulsion pathways for medium-sized wheel loaders under Nordic quarry conditions: A case study

Non-road mobile machinery (NRMM) represents a hard-to-abate segment because of high power demand, long operating hours, and limited charging or refuelling flexibility. To address the limited evidence linking life-cycle climate performance and economic competitiveness in NRMM, this study applies an integrated life-cycle assessment (LCA) and techno-economic assessment (TEA) to three propulsion pathways for medium-sized wheel loaders operating under Nordic quarry conditions: diesel internal-combustion engines, battery-electric drivetrains, and hydrogen fuel-cell electric systems. Environmental performance is evaluated using a work-normalised functional unit (kg CO ₂-eq t ⁻¹ moved), while economic performance is assessed using relative-adjusted total cost of ownership (RA–TCO, € t ⁻¹ moved), complemented by net present cost and Monte Carlo uncertainty analysis. Under the assessed Nordic electricity, energy-price, utilisation, and quarry-duty assumptions, battery-electric wheel loaders achieve the lowest life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions and RA–TCO across the four countries considered. This outcome is driven by high drivetrain efficiency, comparatively low grid-carbon intensity, and lower energy expenditure per unit of productive work. Hydrogen results are strongly dependent on the production pathway and upstream electricity supply. Renewable hydrogen can reduce life-cycle emissions relative to diesel under low-carbon electricity conditions, but remains cost-disadvantaged in the modelled cases, whereas grid-based electrolytic hydrogen can exceed diesel impacts when supplied by carbon-intensive electricity. Investment support and shared infrastructure improve battery-electric economics, while the hydrogen pathways remain more sensitive to fuel price and infrastructure utilisation. The findings indicate that battery-electric propulsion is the most robust option for the medium-sized wheel-loader application and Nordic quarry conditions evaluated in this study. The results should not be interpreted as a universal ranking for all NRMM applications, duty cycles, electricity systems, or regional markets.